Referred Conference Presentations

Abstract:

  Spanish as a Heritage Language (SHL) instruction often, justly, centers the local Spanish varieties students bring from their homes and communities. However, this can mean that global Spanish varieties are left out of the curriculum, which does not allow students to make comparisons between distinct varieties. This project introduces a new unit on Equatoguinean Spanish in a third-level SHL course at a large public university in New Mexico, offering students the chance to engage with an underrepresented variety of Spanish and deepen their Critical Language Awareness (CLA). The course objectives align with Beaudrie and Wilson’s (2021) instructional goals for promoting CLA in the SHL classroom emphasizing deep understandings of the heritage language community, language variation, and cultural awareness in conjunction with literacy development and academic skills in Spanish.

  Equatorial Guinea was chosen as the focus for this week-long unit aimed at exposing students to ideas of linguistic prestige, dialectal variation, and raciolinguistics because it is the only African country with Spanish as an official language and is underrepresented both in Spanish courses (Báez Montero & López Vázquez, 2017) and studies of Spanish linguistics (Lipski, 2000; Schlumpf, 2016). Thus, students had the opportunity to expand their knowledge of Spanish in the world as compared to their own varieties. The unit explored historical and sociolinguistic contexts in Equatorial Guinea, dialectal analysis, literary exploration of César Brandon Ndjocu Davies’s poetry, and comparisons to media representations of Equatoguineans in Spain and Latinos in the U.S., informed by Schlumpf-Thurnherr (2019).

  Reflections from the 11 enrolled students revealed an increased awareness of linguistic prestige, racialized language ideologies, and the marginalization of Spanish speakers within migratory contexts. This curricular innovation demonstrates how integrating a global perspective into SHL instruction can foster deeper CLA and empower students to critically examine language and identity across contexts.

References: 

Báez Montero, I. C., & López Vázquez, L. (2017). El español de África: Guinea Ecuatorial en el aula de ELE. Panhispanismo y Variedades En La Enseñanza Del Español L2-LE, 141–149.

Beaudrie, S., Amezcua, A., & Loza, S. (2021). Critical language awareness in the heritage language classroom: Design, implementation, and evaluation of a curricular intervention. International Multilingual Research Journal, 15(1), 61–81. 

Beaudrie, S., & Ducar, C. (2005). Beginning level university heritage programs: Creating a space for all heritage language learners. Heritage Language Journal, 3(1), 1–26.

Beaudrie, S. M., & Loza, S. (2021). The central role of critical language awareness in Spanish heritage language education in the United States: An introduction. In Heritage Language Teaching (pp. 1–19). Routledge.

Beaudrie, S. M., & Wilson, D. V. (2021). Reimagining the goals of HL pedagogy through Critical Language Awareness. In S. Loza & S. M. Beaudrie (Eds.), Heritage Language Teaching: Critical Language Awareness Perspectives for Research and Pedagogy (pp. 63–79). Taylor and Francis.

Buck, M. (forthcoming). Using the personal, local, and global:

Developing critical language awareness in the Intermediate SHL Classroom. 

Buck, M., del Bosque, B. & Zavala, E. (forthcoming). Beyond the confines of a definition: How heritage speakers understand, define, and live “inherited” multilingualism. In S. McKinnon, P. Requena, W. Chappell, & I. Moyna (Eds.), A language without borders: Studies on Spanish in a multilingual world. Routledge.

DeFeo, D. J. (2015). Spanish Is Foreign: Heritage Speakers’ Interpretations of the Introductory Spanish Language Curriculum. International Multilingual Research Journal, 9(2), 108–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2015.1016828

Holguín Mendoza, C. (2022). Sociolinguistic Justice and Student Agency in Language Education: Towards a Model for Critical Sociocultural Linguistics Literacy. In S. Loza & S. Beaudrie (Eds.), Heritage Language Teaching Critical Language Awareness: Perspectives for Research and Pedagogy (pp. 138–156). Routledge.

Holguín Mendoza, C., & Walker, N. S. (2024). Beyond critical language awareness: Reflexivity for antiracist critical literacy in Spanish language education. In C. Lamar Prieto & Á. González Alba (Eds.), Digital flux, linguistic justice and minoritized languages (p. 77). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.

Koshiba, K. (2022). Between Inheritance and Commodity: The Discourse of Japanese 

Ethnolinguistic Identity among Youths in a Heritage Language Class in Australia. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 21(5), 316–329.

Lipski, J. (2000). The Spanish of Equatorial Guinea: Research on la hispanidad’s best-kept secret. Afro-Hispanic Review, 11–38.

Rampin, R., & Rampin, V. (2021). Taguette: Open-source qualitative data analysis. Journal of Open Source Software, 6(68), 3522. 

Schlumpf, S. (2016). Hacia el reconocimiento del español de Guinea Ecuatorial. Estudios 

de Lingüística del Español, 37, 217–233.

Schlumpf-Thurnherr, S. (2019). Construcción del colectivo guineoecuatoriano en España a 

través de la prensa: El País y La Vanguardia (2010-2018). Discurso & Sociedad, 13(2), 

287–324.

Wilson, D. V., & Martínez, R. (2011). Diversity in definition: Integrating history and student 

attitudes in understanding heritage learners of Spanish in New Mexico. Heritage 

Language Journal, 8(2), 270–288.

Abstract:

  In Spanish as a Heritage Language (SHL) classrooms, instruction often centers on the personal and local Spanish varieties familiar to the students – rightfully positioning these varieties at the forefront of the curriculum. In contrast, second language (L2) Spanish classrooms often focus on prestigious global Spanish varieties as means of cultural comparison, frequently at the expense of less prestigious local varieties. For example, DeFeo (2015) found that heritage learners (HLs) in L2 Spanish classes perceived Spanish as a language for travel and tourism in their classes because their own linguistic realities were not explored. This project outlines how bringing global perspectives into the SHL classroom, without sidelining local and personal varieties, can foster Critical Language Awareness (CLA) in a way that makes all Spanishes relatable to students.

  In Spring 2025, a third-level SHL course at a large Hispanic-serving institution in New Mexico underwent curricular changes aimed at further enhancing CLA in the course. Of the 20 students enrolled in the course, 11 agreed to participate in interviews reflecting on the pedagogical changes. The SHL program uses a broad definition of HLs (Beaudrie and Ducar, 2005; Koshiba, 2022; Wilson and Martinez, 2011), meaning that not all students were “Hispanic” or grew up speaking Spanish, but rather, had acquired Spanish primarily in naturalistic settings. This resulted in a diverse group of students with varied linguistic and cultural backgrounds and perspectives.    

  The course objectives were crafted following Beaudrie and Wilson’s (2021) instructional goals for CLA development in SHL classrooms, which prioritize validating personal linguistic varieties, expanding bilingual range, expanding awareness of and acceptance of linguistic variation, and developing a prestige variety. Throughout the course, students engaged in in-depth self-identity exploration, reflected on social and linguistic practices and traditions of communities in New Mexico, and reflected on social and linguistic practices in other Spanish-speaking places, all while improving upon oral and written communication and metalinguistic awareness.

  To explore their personal cultural and linguistic context, students completed a semester-long portfolio project in which they reflected on their own cultural and linguistic identity and an interview that they conducted with a family member or friend. For the local Spanish context, students examined the history of Spanish in New Mexico, especially in relation to MacGregor Mendoza’s (2000) work detailing corporal punishment and Spanish use in schools and how this has impacted language maintenance. Finally, for a more global perspective on Spanish, students participated in a week-long unit on Equatoguinean Spanish speakers and presented on different Spanish-speaking countries or communities of their choice.

Interview data revealed that exploring local, personal, and global sociolinguistic contexts expanded students’ CLA. Many students demonstrated a robust understanding of linguistic prestige, language ideologies, and the marginalization of Spanish speakers across contexts that would not have emerged if the class focused solely on personal and local varieties of Spanish.

References: 

Atencio, P. (1991). Cuentos from my Childhood: Legends and Folklores of Northern New

Mexico (R. Cobos, Trans.). Museum of New Mexico Press.

Atencio, T. (1972). Introducción. In E. Arellano (Ed.), Entre verde y seco. La Academia de la Nueva Raza.

Beaudrie, S., Amezcua, A., & Loza, S. (2019). Critical language awareness for the heritage context: Development and validation of a measurement questionnaire. Language Testing, 36(4), 573–594.

Beaudrie, S., & Ducar, C. (2005). Beginning level university heritage programs: Creating a 

space for all heritage language learners. Heritage Language Journal, 3(1), 1–26.

Beaudrie, S. M., Ducar, C., & Potowski, K. (2014). Heritage language teaching: Research and practice. McGraw-Hill Education Create New York, NY.

Beaudrie, S. M., & Loza, S. (2021). The central role of critical language awareness in Spanish heritage language education in the United States: An introduction. In Heritage Language Teaching (pp. 1–19). Routledge.

Beaudrie, S. M., & Wilson, D. V. (2021). Reimagining the goals of HL pedagogy through 

Critical Language Awareness. In S. Loza & S. M. Beaudrie (Eds.), Heritage Language Teaching: Critical Language Awareness Perspectives for Research and Pedagogy (pp. 63–79). Taylor and Francis.

Bills, G. D., & Vigil, N. A. (2008). The Spanish language of New Mexico and southern

Colorado: A linguistic atlas. University of New Mexico Press.

Buck, M., del Bosque, B. & Zavala, E. (forthcoming). Beyond the confines of a definition: How heritage speakers understand, define, and live “inherited” multilingualism. In S. McKinnon, P. Requena, W. Chappell, & I. Moyna (Eds.), A language without borders: Studies on Spanish in a multilingual world. Routledge.

Callesano, S. (2023). Mediated Bricolage and the Sociolinguistic Co-Construction of No Sabo Kids. Languages, 8(3), 206.

DeFeo, D. J. (2015). Spanish Is Foreign: Heritage Speakers’ Interpretations of the Introductory Spanish Language Curriculum. International Multilingual Research Journal, 9(2), 108–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2015.1016828

Del Ángel Guevara, M. E. (2023). Returning to Northern New Mexico. A Study of the

Nuevomexicano Lexicon [Doctoral Dissertation]. The University of New Mexico.

Exec. Order No. 14224, 3 C.F.R. 11363 (2025).

https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/03/06/2025-

03694/desi   gnating-english-as-the-official-language-of-the-united-states

Holguín Mendoza, C., & Walker, N. S. (2024). Beyond critical language awareness: Reflexivity for antiracist critical literacy in Spanish language education. In C. Lamar Prieto & Á. González Alba (Eds.), Digital flux, linguistic justice and minoritized languages (p. 77). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.

Koshiba, K. (2022). Between Inheritance and Commodity: The Discourse of Japanese 

Ethnolinguistic Identity among Youths in a Heritage Language Class in Australia. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 21(5), 316–329.

Kramsch, C. (2020). Language as symbolic power. Cambridge University Press.

Leeman, J. (2005). Engaging Critical Pedagogy: Spanish for Native Speakers. Foreign Language Annals, 38(1), 35–45. 

MacGregor-Mendoza, P. (2000). Aquí No Se Habla Español: Stories of Linguistic Repression in Southwest Schools. Bilingual Research Journal, 24(4), 355–367.

Martínez, G. A. (2003). Classroom based dialect awareness in heritage language instruction: A critical applied linguistic approach. Heritage Language Journal, 1(1), 44-

57.

MILCK. (2025). Mother Tongue [Song]. On Mother Tongue.

Rampin, R., & Rampin, V. (2021). Taguette: Open-source qualitative data analysis. Journal of 

Open Source Software, 6(68), 3522. 

Romero, L. (n.d.) “De donde soy yo.” Pulitzer Center.

https://pulitzercenter.org/sites/default/files/2021-06/De%20Donde%20Yo%20Soy.pdf

Schlumpf, S. (2016). Hacia el reconocimiento del español de Guinea Ecuatorial. Estudios 

de Lingüística del Español, 37, 217–233.

Schlumpf-Thurnherr, S. (2019). Construcción del colectivo guineoecuatoriano en España a 

través de la prensa: El País y La Vanguardia (2010-2018). Discurso & Sociedad, 13(2), 287–324.

Showstack, R., y Cabo, D. P., & Wilson, D. V. (2024). Language ideologies and linguistic

identity in heritage language learning. Routledge.

Vidaurre-Trujillo, J. (2018). Papa y Frijoles: Cuentitos y Poemas para honarar a mi cultura. 

Golden Word Books.

Wilson, D. V., & Martínez, R. (2011). Diversity in definition: Integrating history and student 

attitudes in understanding heritage learners of Spanish in New Mexico. Heritage

Language Journal, 8(2), 270–288.

Abstract:

In Spanish as a Heritage Language (SHL) classrooms, instruction often centers on the personal and local Spanish varieties familiar to the students – rightfully positioning these varieties at the heart of the curriculum. In contrast, second language (L2) Spanish classrooms often focus on prestigious global Spanish varieties, frequently at the expense of less prestigious local varieties. For example, DeFeo (2015) found that heritage learners (HLs) in L2 Spanish classes perceived Spanish as a language for travel and tourism in their classes because their own linguistic realities were not explored. This project outlines how bringing global perspectives into the SHL classroom, without sidelining local and personal varieties, can foster Critical Language Awareness (CLA) in a way that does not make Spanish seem “foreign.” 

In Spring 2025, a third-level SHL course at a large Hispanic-serving institution in New Mexico underwent curricular changes aimed at further enhancing CLA in the course. Of the 20 students enrolled in the course, 11 agreed to participate in interviews reflecting on course content and pedagogical changes. The SHL program uses a broad definition of HLs (Beaudrie and Ducar, 2005; Koshiba, 2022; Wilson and Martinez, 2011), meaning that not all students were “Hispanic” or grew up speaking Spanish, but rather, had acquired Spanish primarily in naturalistic settings. This resulted in a diverse class with varied backgrounds and perspectives.    

The course objectives were crafted following Beaudrie and Wilson’s (2021) instructional goals for CLA development in SHL classrooms, which prioritize validating personal linguistic varieties, expanding bilingual range, expanding awareness of and acceptance of linguistic variation, and developing a prestige variety. Throughout the course, students engaged in in-depth self-identity exploration, reflected on social and linguistic practices and traditions of communities in New Mexico, and reflected on social and linguistic practices in other Spanish-speaking places, all while improving upon oral and written communication and metalinguistic awareness. 

To explore their personal cultural and linguistic context, students completed a semester-long portfolio project in which they reflected on their own cultural and linguistic identity and an interview that they conducted with a family member or friend. For the local Spanish context, students examined the history of Spanish in New Mexico, especially in relation to MacGregor Mendoza’s (2000) work detailing corporal punishment and Spanish use in schools and how this has impacted language maintenance. Finally, for a more global perspective on Spanish, students participated in a week-long unit on Equatoguinean Spanish speakers and created individual presentations on different Spanish-speaking countries or communities. 

Interview data revealed that exploring familiar and unfamiliar sociolinguistic contexts expanded students’ CLA. Many students demonstrated a robust understanding of linguistic prestige, language ideologies, and marginalization of Spanish speakers across contexts that would not have emerged if the class focused solely on personal and local varieties of Spanish. 

References: 

Báez Montero, I. C., & López Vázquez, L. (2017). El español de África: Guinea Ecuatorial en el aula de ELE. Panhispanismo y Variedades En La Enseñanza Del Español L2-LE, 141–149.

Beaudrie, S. M., & Wilson, D. V. (2021). Reimagining the goals of HL pedagogy through Critical Language Awareness. In S. Loza & S. M. Beaudrie (Eds.), Heritage Language Teaching: Critical Language Awareness Perspectives for Research and Pedagogy (pp. 63–79). Taylor and Francis.

Buck, M., del Bosque, B. & Zavala, E. (forthcoming). Beyond the confines of a definition: How heritage speakers understand, define, and live “inherited” multilingualism

DeFeo, D. J. (2015). Spanish Is Foreign: Heritage Speakers’ Interpretations of the Introductory Spanish Language Curriculum. International Multilingual Research Journal, 9(2), 108–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2015.1016828

Del Carpio, L. (2022). Heritage Language Learners’ Attitudes Towards Familiar Varieties of Spanish. Spanish Portuguese Review, 7, 105–118.

Foulis, E., & Gillen, K. (2024). Culturally Sustaining Pedagogy at Hispanic Serving Institutions: The Case for Centering Heritage Language Learners’ Experiences in Spanish Programs. Journal of Latinos and Education, 23(3), 1254–1265. https://doi.org/10.1080/15348431.2023.2256852

García, O. (2019). Decolonizing foreign, second, heritage, and first languages: Implications for education. In D. Macedo (Ed.), Decolonizing foreign language education (pp. 152–168). Routledge.

Lacorte, M., & Magro, J. L. (2021). Foundations for critical and antiracist heritage language teaching. In S. Loza & S. M. Beaudrie (Eds.), Heritage Language Teaching: Critical Language Awareness Perspectives for Research and Pedagogy (pp. 23–43). Taylor and Francis.

Lipski, J. (2000). The Spanish of Equatorial Guinea: Research on la hispanidad’s best-kept secret. Afro-Hispanic Review, 11–38.

MacGregor-Mendoza, P. (2000). Aquí No Se Habla Español: Stories of Linguistic Repression in Southwest Schools. Bilingual Research Journal, 24(4), 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/15235882.2000.10162772

Rosa, J. (2019). Looking like a language, sounding like a race: Raciolinguistic ideologies and the learning of Latinidad. Oxford University Press.

Schlumpf, S. (2016). Hacia el reconocimiento del español de Guinea Ecuatorial. Estudios de Lingüística Del Español, 37, 217–233.

Schlumpf-Thurnherr, S. (2019). Guineoecuatorianos en Madrid: Actitudes hacia su propio español y el español madrileño. Lengua y Migración/Language and Migration, 10(2), 7–31.

Wilson, D. V. (2022). Incorporating our own traditions and our own ways of trying to learn the language: Beginning-level Spanish as a heritage language students’ perception of their SHL learning experience. In M. A. Bowles (Ed.), Outcomes of university Spanish heritage language instruction in the United States (pp. 129–147). Georgetown University Press.

Wilson, D. V., & Martínez, R. (2011). Diversity in definition: Integrating history and student attitudes in understanding heritage learners of Spanish in New Mexico. Heritage Language Journal, 8(2), 270–288.

Abstract:

Durante el otoño de 2024, entrevistamos a 55 estudiantes de cuatro niveles de cursos de español para hablantes de herencia (EHH). En nuestra universidad, los criterios de inclusión en el programa de EHH no se basan en las definiciones más tradicionales de tener solamente una conexión familiar con el español (e.g., Valdés, 2000) ni en las definiciones que prescriben ciertos niveles de competencia en español (e.g., Benmamoun et al, 2013). Se incluyen a los estudiantes según una definición más abierta como las de (e.g., Beaudrie & Ducar, 2005; Wilson & Martinez, 2011), que permite que cualquier estudiante que tenga relación familiar, comunitaria o histórica con el español pueda entrar a estas clases.

         Con esta diversidad de identidades viene cierta variación dialectal en el aula. Muchos estudiantes expresaron que el dialecto que se habla o el que hablan las personas que conocen más, son los que son preferidos por ellos. Otros estudiantes eligieron dialectos más prestigiosos como el español peninsular que demuestra cierto eurocentrismo que sigue vivo para algunos estudiantes (Carter & Callesano, 2018).

         La mayoría de los estudiantes identificaron sus dialectos más/menos preferidos, pero unos estudiantes tenían dificultad aún con entender qué significa “dialecto” o “variedad” de español cuando los investigadores les preguntaron sus opiniones.

         Por eso, dado que hubo estudiantes que ni pudieron identificar qué son los dialectos y otros que tenían actitudes muy fuertes en contra de algunos dialectos, hemos decidido delegar más tiempo a la variación dialectal dentro del aula para poder expandir el conocimiento dialectal de nuestros estudiantes y promover una vista más holística del español munidal.

References: 

Beaudrie, S., & Ducar, C. (2005). Beginning level university heritage programs: Creating a space 

    for all heritage language learners. Heritage Language Journal, 3(1), 1–26.

Beaudrie, S. M., & Wilson, D. V. (2021). Reimagining the goals of HL pedagogy through Critical Language Awareness. In S. Loza & S. M. Beaudrie (Eds.), Heritage Language Teaching: Critical Language Awareness Perspectives for Research and Pedagogy (pp. 63–79). Taylor and Francis.

Carter, P. M., & Callesano, S. (2018). The social meaning of Spanish in Miami: Dialect perceptions and implications for socioeconomic class, income, and employment. Latino Studies, 16, 65–90.

Henderson, M. H., Wilson, D. V., & Woods, M. R. (2020). How course level, gender, and ethnic identity labels interact with language attitudes towards Spanish as a heritage language. Hispania, 103(1), 27–42.

Koshiba, K. (2022). Between Inheritance and Commodity: The Discourse of Japanese Ethnolinguistic Identity among Youths in a Heritage Language Class in Australia. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 21(5), 316–329. 

Leeman, J. (2012). Investigating language ideologies in Spanish as a heritage language. In S. Beaudrie & M. Fairclough (Eds.), Spanish as a heritage language in the United States: The state of the field (pp. 43–59). Georgetown University Press.

Martínez, G. A. (2003). Classroom based dialect awareness in heritage language instruction: A critical applied linguistic approach. Heritage Language Journal, 1(1), 44–57.

Park, M. Y. (2022). Language ideologies, heritage language use, and identity construction among 1.5-generation Korean immigrants in New Zealand. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(7), 2469–2481. 

Valdés, G. (2000). The teaching of heritage languages: An introduction for Slavic-teaching professionals. The Learning and Teaching of Slavic Languages and Cultures, 375–403.

Vana, R. F. (2020). Learning with an Attitude⁈: Heritage and L2 Students’ Language Attitudes toward Spanish Language Varieties in the Advanced Mixed Class [Doctoral Dissertation]. Arizona State University.

Wilson, D. V., & Ibarra, C. E. (2015). Understanding the inheritors: The perception of beginning level students toward their Spanish as a Heritage Language program. EuroAmerican Journal of Applied Linguistics and Languages, 2(2), 85–101.

Wilson, D. V., & Martínez, R. (2011). Diversity in definition: Integrating history and student attitudes in understanding heritage learners of Spanish in New Mexico. Heritage Language Journal, 8(2), 270–288.

Abstract:

We explored the relationship between the locations of the new DLI programs and population changes between 2010 and 2020 in a large Midwestern US city. Results indicate that 63% of new DLI schools opened in neighborhoods with significantly increasing population of White households and decreasing Latinx households.

References: 

American Councils Research Center. (2021). Canvass of Dual Language Immersion (DLI) programs in the U.S public schools.  Retrieved from https://www.americancouncils.org/sites/default/files/documents/pages/2021- 10/Canvass%20DLI%20-%20October%202021-2_ac.pdf

Cardona-Maguigad, A. (2020, October 12). More Than 70% Of CPS Bilingual Programs Fall Short. National Public Radio: WBEZ Chicago. https://www.wbez.org/stories/more-than-70-of-cps-bilingual-programs-fall- short/835b5876-98ea-4a4b-b082-3b92c298f8a6

Center for Applied Linguistics. (2016). Directory of two- way immersion programs in the U.S. Retrieved March 23, 2016 from http://www.cal.org/twi/directory.

Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning. (2021). 2020 Census Supplement: Chicago Community Areas [Data file]. Retrieved from https://datahub.cmap.illinois.gov/dataset/community-data-snapshots-raw- data/resource/0916f1de-ae37-4476-bf4e-6485ba08c975

Chicago Metropolitan Agency for Planning. (2015). 2010 Census Data Summarized to Chicago Community Area. Retrieved from https://datahub.cmap.illinois.gov/dataset/2010-census-data-summarized-to- chicago-community-areas/resource/b30b47bf-bb0d-46b6-853b- 47270fb7f626

Chicago Public Schools. (2022). Budget (FY 2023). Retrieved from  https://www.cps.edu/about/finance/budget/budget-2023/

Chicago Public Schools. (2022). Demographics. Retrieved from https://www.cps.edu/about/district-data/demographics/

Chicago Public Schools. (2015-2022).  Press Releases.  Retrieved from https://www.cps.edu/press-releases/

García, O., Zakharia, Z. and Otcu, B. (2013). Bilingual Community Education for  American Children: Beyond Heritage Languages in a Global City. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Potowski, K (2004). Student Spanish Use and Investment in a Dual Immersion Classroom: Implications for Second Language Acquisition and Heritage Language Maintenance. The Modern Language Journal, 88, 1, pp. 75-101.

Potowski, K (2013, April). No child left monolingual [Video}. TEDX  Conferences. https://hip.uic.edu/news-stories/kim-potowskis-tedx-talk-no-child-left-in- monolingual/

Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. (1997). School Effectiveness for Language Minority Students. NCBE Resource Collection Series, No. 9. National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED436087

U.S. Census Bureau (2021). Quickfacts Chicago City Illinois. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/chicagocityillinois

U.S. Census Bureau (2021). Quickfacts Illinois. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/IL

USA Facts. (2021).  Our changing Population: Illinois. Retrieved from https://usafacts.org/data/topics/people-society/population-and-  demographics/our-changing-population/state/illinois?endDate=2020-01- 01&startDate=2010-01 01&gclid=CjwKCAjwqauVBhBGEiwAXOepkZhtyuquHrns3lbPtx1lAM1MmL5 GGEaRCM6mIEIieIRBTzVdMLUsjRoC6RQQAvD_BwE